Small Ruminants
Frequently Asked Questions
Scientific answers based on NRC 2007 (Sheep & Goat) standards, prepared by Doç. Dr. Mehmet ÇOLAK
Dry matter intake is usually 3-4% of body weight. Sheep (60 kg): 1.8-2.4 kg dry matter/day. Goat (50 kg): 1.5-2.0 kg dry matter/day. During the last 6 weeks of pregnancy, energy demand rises by 50-70%, and underfeeding during this period increases the risk of pregnancy toxemia. During lactation, dry matter intake increases by about 20-30%. NRC 2007 for small ruminants provides detailed requirement tables according to body weight and physiological stage. VetKriter sheep and goat ration calculators estimate these values automatically.
Pregnancy toxemia is a metabolic disease that develops close to parturition because of negative energy balance. The risk is especially high in animals carrying twins or triplets, with a prevalence of about 15-20% in twin-bearing animals. Clinical signs include loss of appetite, separation from the flock, incoordination, and mental dullness. Prevention includes: 1) energy support during the last 6 weeks of pregnancy, such as propylene glycol 50-100 mL/day, 2) monitoring BCS and aiming for 2.5-3.5 at lambing or kidding, 3) improving forage quality, and 4) reducing stress. If untreated, mortality may reach 80%.
Although sheep and goats look similar, their feeding behavior and nutrient needs differ. Goats: are more selective browsers and prefer shrubs and leaves. Their copper requirement is 3-4 times higher than that of sheep, so sheep mineral mixes should not be used for goats. Low-copper sheep minerals may cause deficiency in goats. Goats also tend to need slightly higher dietary energy density. Sheep: are grazers and tolerate fibrous forage better, but they are much more sensitive to copper toxicity, so goat minerals must never be used in sheep.
Colostrum management is critical at lambing and kidding. Within the first 6 hours, the newborn should consume about 10% of its body weight as colostrum (for example, a 4 kg lamb should receive 400 mL). Colostrum IgG concentration should be >50 mg/mL. If the dam does not produce enough colostrum, frozen colostrum or a high-quality replacer can be used. The newborn should begin suckling within 30 minutes after birth. In the dam, additional energy and protein support at the start of lactation helps improve milk production.
BCS in small ruminants is scored on a 1-5 scale (1 = very thin, 5 = obese). Target values: before breeding 3.0-3.5, mid-gestation 2.5-3.0, at parturition 2.5-3.5, early lactation 2.0-2.5 as some loss from NEB is expected, and at weaning 2.5-3.0. A BCS <2.0 suggests undernutrition and poorer reproductive performance. A BCS >4.0 increases the risk of obesity, dystocia, and pregnancy toxemia. In sheep, BCS is assessed by palpating the lumbar vertebrae.
NDF (Neutral Detergent Fiber) is essential for rumen health. According to NRC 2007, the minimum is usually 25-30% NDF on a dry matter basis for sheep and 30-35% for goats. If NDF drops below 20%, the risk of ruminal acidosis increases. NDF from long-fiber forage is more valuable than NDF from concentrates because it has a stronger buffering effect in the rumen. In high-grain diets, sodium bicarbonate (10-15 g/day) can be used as a buffer. In silage-based rations, adding dry forage such as hay or straw improves fiber effectiveness.
Internal parasites, especially Haemonchus contortus, are among the most important health problems in small ruminant production. The FAMACHA score is used to assess conjunctival color and guide selective treatment (scores 1-2 normal, 4-5 indicate anemia and treatment need). Targeted selective treatment means treating only the animals that need it instead of the whole flock, which helps slow anthelmintic resistance. Rotational grazing can reduce pasture contamination. Rotation among anthelmintic classes such as benzimidazoles, macrocyclic lactones, and levamisole is also important for resistance management.
Milk yield depends on genetics, nutrition, and management. Nutritional strategies include increasing dietary energy density at the start of lactation, using rumen-protected or bypass protein when appropriate, maintaining a calcium-to-phosphorus ratio near 2:1, and supporting udder health with vitamin E and selenium. Management factors include regular milking (usually twice daily), reducing stress, and keeping housing clean. Genetics also matters: high-yielding breeds such as Saanen and Lacaune, or well-planned crossbreeding, improve performance. In Turkey, Saanen × local goat crosses often give good results.
NRC 2007 expresses energy requirements in terms of metabolizable energy (ME). For a 60 kg sheep that is not pregnant, maintenance is about 7.5 MJ ME/day. In the last 6 weeks of twin pregnancy, energy requirement rises by about 70-100%. During lactation, each additional 1 L of milk requires about 2.5 MJ ME/day. Energy deficiency leads to BCS loss, pregnancy toxemia, and reduced milk yield; too much energy leads to obesity and dystocia. The VetKriter sheep and goat ration calculators estimate these values automatically.
NRC 2007 uses a metabolizable protein (MP) system. For an adult sheep at maintenance, the need is about 60-80 g MP/day. In the last 6 weeks of pregnancy, it rises to about 120-160 g MP/day. During lactation, the requirement is usually about 150-200 g MP/day. Dietary crude protein is generally around 14-16% in late pregnancy and 16-18% during lactation on a dry matter basis. Rumen bypass protein may be useful in early lactation. Urea must be used carefully; goats are often more sensitive than sheep.
Key minerals include calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, selenium, and zinc. Calcium ranges from about 0.20-0.82% for sheep and 0.21-0.97% for goats on a dry matter basis depending on physiological status. Phosphorus is about 0.16-0.38% in sheep and 0.16-0.42% in goats. Magnesium is usually 0.12-0.18%. Copper is a major difference: sheep need about 7-11 mg/kg dry matter and are highly sensitive to toxicity, while goats usually need 10-20 mg/kg dry matter. Selenium is generally 0.1-0.2 mg/kg dry matter, and zinc about 20-33 mg/kg. Sheep and goats should receive separate mineral premixes.
Sheep are extremely sensitive to copper toxicity. Copper accumulates in the liver and may later trigger an acute hemolytic crisis. Common toxic sources include giving goat minerals to sheep, using copper sulfate for parasite control, grazing fertilized pastures with high copper, or using copper-containing water systems. Clinical signs include sudden hemolytic anemia, jaundice, dark urine, and sudden death. Prevention depends on using sheep-specific low-copper mineral mixes and never feeding goat minerals to sheep. A sheep mineral should generally contain <10 mg/kg dry matter copper.
Reproductive performance depends on genetics, nutrition, and management. Flushing means increasing energy intake by about 20-30% during the 2-3 weeks before breeding. This can improve ovulation rate and increase the chance of twins or triplets. A BCS of 3.0-3.5 is usually the target. Light management is also important because sheep are seasonally polyestrous and usually begin cycling as day length shortens in autumn. Artificial lighting or the ram effect can help synchronize estrus. Selenium and vitamin E supplementation may also support reproductive performance.
Enterotoxemia (pulpy kidney disease) develops when Clostridium perfringens type D proliferates excessively. A sudden switch to a high-energy ration is one of the main risk factors. Clinical signs may include sudden death, neurologic signs, and diarrhea. Prevention includes 1) clostridial vaccination, often twice yearly and again 4-6 weeks before parturition, 2) gradual diet transitions, 3) maintaining enough forage in the ration, and 4) avoiding excessive grain intake. Enterotoxemia remains an important cause of death in small ruminant production in Turkey.
Mastitis is an important cause of economic loss in small ruminant farming. Common pathogens include Staphylococcus aureus, Mannheimia haemolytica, and Pasteurella multocida. Clinical signs include udder swelling, heat, pain, and changes in milk appearance. Subclinical mastitis may be suspected when somatic cell count exceeds 500,000 cells/mL. Prevention includes good milking hygiene, post-milking teat dipping, dry-period therapy when indicated, and immune support through vitamin E and selenium. Chronic cases should generally be removed from the flock or herd.
External parasites such as ticks, lice, mange mites, and flies cause stress, transmit disease, and reduce productivity. Sheep scab (Psoroptes ovis) is common in sheep and may require quarantine measures. It is often treated with ivermectin or doramectin. Ticks can transmit Theileria, Babesia, and Anaplasma. Lice are common in winter and reduce fleece quality. Flies increase the risk of myiasis, especially around wounds. Regular monitoring and a seasonal treatment plan are important.
Foot rot, caused by Dichelobacter nodosus together with Fusobacterium necrophorum, is a major cause of lameness in small ruminants. Clinical signs include severe lameness, tissue damage between the claws, and foul odor. Management includes footbaths with 10% zinc sulfate or 5% formalin, regular hoof trimming and cleaning, antibiotic treatment such as penicillin or oxytetracycline when indicated, vaccination where available, and avoiding wet muddy ground. Chronic cases should usually be culled. If lameness prevalence exceeds 5%, flock-level intervention is needed.
Coccidiosis caused by Eimeria spp. can cause severe diarrhea and death, especially in young animals 2-8 weeks old. Risk factors include overcrowding, wet bedding, stress, and poor colostrum intake. Clinical signs include watery or bloody diarrhea, weight loss, and death. Prevention includes keeping housing clean and dry, avoiding overcrowding, ensuring adequate colostrum intake, and using decoquinate or monensin in high-risk periods. Water and feed hygiene are also important. Treatment may include toltrazuril or amprolium under veterinary supervision.
Pregnancy toxemia requires urgent treatment. A typical treatment protocol may include propylene glycol 50-100 mL orally 2-3 times daily for 5-7 days, intravenous 50% glucose given slowly, thiamine if neurologic signs are present, dexamethasone when induction of parturition is appropriate, and cesarean section if needed. Prognosis is much better with early treatment, with recovery rates of about 60-70%. Once severe neurologic signs appear, prognosis becomes poor. Mortality remains high even with treatment, so prevention is more effective than treatment.
Respiratory diseases caused by Pasteurella, Mannheimia, and Mycoplasma are important causes of death in small ruminants. Risk factors include sudden weather changes, overcrowding, poor ventilation, stress, and inadequate colostrum. Clinical signs include coughing, nasal discharge, fever, and difficult breathing. Prevention includes vaccination, adequate ventilation, stress reduction, quarantine for newly introduced animals, and early detection. Antibiotics such as oxytetracycline or florfenicol may be used under veterinary guidance.
Listeriosis caused by Listeria monocytogenes is often linked to feeding poor-quality silage. Clinical forms include the neurologic form (encephalitis) with head tilt, circling, and facial paralysis; a septicemic form causing abortion or death in young animals; and an ocular form with uveitis. Prevention depends on using good-quality silage (pH < 4.5 with proper fermentation), avoiding spoiled silage, maintaining feed hygiene, and minimizing stress. Early high-dose penicillin may be attempted, but prognosis is often poor, so prevention is critical.
Feed analysis is a basic tool for ration optimization. Important parameters include dry matter, crude protein, NDF, ADF, energy (ME or NEL), minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium, copper, zinc, and selenium, as well as mycotoxins and pH in silage. Recommended frequency includes every new feed batch, about every 3 months for silage, and when pasture conditions change. Rations formulated without analysis may provide too little or too much of key nutrients. The VetKriter sheep and goat ration calculators use analysis data to optimize the ration.
Urolithiasis is especially important in male animals such as rams, bucks, lambs, and kids. Struvite and calcium carbonate stones are among the most common forms. Risk factors include a high-phosphorus and low-calcium ration, high grain with too little forage, and inadequate water intake. Prevention includes maintaining a calcium-to-phosphorus ratio of 2:1 to 2.5:1, using ammonium chloride to acidify the urine, ensuring free access to water, increasing forage proportion, and sometimes adding salt to stimulate water intake.
Selenium deficiency is common in Turkey. Clinical signs include white muscle disease in lambs and kids, weakness, inability to stand or walk, sudden death, retained placenta, weaker immunity, and reduced fertility. Prevention includes selenium supplementation at 0.1-0.2 mg/kg dry matter. Organic selenium such as selenomethionine generally has better bioavailability than inorganic forms. Injection of selenium plus vitamin E 4-6 weeks before parturition is commonly used. Selenium can also be toxic, so excessive intake should be avoided; levels above 2 mg/kg dry matter may be dangerous.
A structured herd health program can reduce disease costs substantially. Key annual components include vaccination (for example clostridial disease twice yearly, Pasteurella-Mannheimia, and foot rot depending on the area), parasite control using FAMACHA-guided selective treatment, selenium plus vitamin E supplementation before parturition, BCS checks at breeding, mid-gestation, parturition, and weaning, hoof care twice yearly, reproductive monitoring such as ultrasound pregnancy checks, and accurate record keeping for births, deaths, treatments, and performance.
Heat stress reduces feed intake, milk yield, and reproductive performance in sheep and goats. Effects include lower dry matter intake, lower milk production, silent estrus, and higher embryo loss. Management includes providing shade (at least 2 m²/animal), using fans or sprinklers, feeding in the cooler early morning and late evening hours, increasing dietary energy density when needed, giving electrolytes, and ensuring abundant water. Water intake may increase by about 50% during heat stress. Highly digestible, high-quality feeds are preferred.
Colostrum is the newborn's first source of immunity. Critical points include giving colostrum equal to about 10% of body weight within the first 6 hours of life. IgG absorption falls dramatically after 24 hours because of gut closure. Colostrum IgG concentration should ideally be >50 mg/mL. Inadequate colostrum increases neonatal mortality and disease risk. Management includes keeping the dam and newborn together after birth, assisting with syringe or bottle feeding if suckling is weak, and freezing extra colostrum at -20°C for up to 1 year. Quality can be checked with a refractometer.
Pasture management is important for both animal health and environmental sustainability. Rotational grazing means dividing pasture into paddocks, grazing each area for about 7-10 days, and then resting it for 30-45 days. This can reduce parasite burden and improve pasture productivity. Stocking density should be controlled to avoid overgrazing, soil erosion, and pasture degradation. Seasonal management is also important: avoid grazing too early in spring because of grass tetany risk, allow fall rest periods, and provide extra feed during winter when pasture is insufficient.
The timing and method of weaning affect both offspring and dam health. Typical weaning age is 60-90 days for lambs and kids, although earlier weaning around 45 days may be possible in some systems. Weaning too early can impair growth, while very late weaning may reduce maternal body condition. Management should favor a gradual approach when possible, because abrupt weaning increases mastitis risk. Reducing the dam's energy intake about 1 week before weaning may help. After weaning, the young animal should receive high-quality forage and concentrate and be kept in a familiar environment to reduce stress.
All answers on this page are prepared based on NRC 2007 (Sheep & Goat) and current Small Ruminant Research articles.
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